Core Leadership Track

MODULES

Questions on Leadership
Defining Leadership
Leadership Characteristics and Traits
Leadership Theories and Styles
Determining Your Style - Exercises

Tools

The term "leadership" is defined in Webster's Dictionary as: the office or position of a leader, capacity to lead, the act or instance of leading.
Unfortunately, the study of leadership is not exact. When compared to many aspects of the study of medicine, in which the physical world is orderly, uniform, and follows rules, the study of leadership involves examining people's social behavior, which is anything but predictable. For this reason, a list of definitions is not likely to be useful to one aspiring to a position of leadership or desiring to develop leadership skills. Therefore, in this module we have chosen to examine contemporary thought regarding leadership and draw from well-known scholars of leadership to assign meaning to the word "leadership."

QUESTIONS ON LEADERSHIP

"We ought to be able to learn some things second-hand. There is not enough time to make all the mistakes ourselves." - Harriet Hall

If you are reading this module, there is a good chance that you fall into one of two categories: Either you are a leader or you aspire to be a leader. Regardless of which category you place yourself in, we believe you will find valuable information to assist you in your current or future role as a leader in this module. Please answer the following questions on leadership prior to beginning this module. We suggest you take the time to carefully consider the questions and that you put your answers in writing for future reference. In addition, when you answer the following questions, attempt to put aside anything and everything you know about leadership from reading and formal teaching.

What are the characteristics of poor leaders with whom you have worked and whose leadership you have directly observed?
What are the characteristics of outstanding leaders with whom you have worked and whose leadership you have directly observed?
What attraction does leadership hold for you?
In 10 years, where will you be and what will you be doing (both in general and in relation to leadership)?
What legacy would you like to leave behind?

DEFINING LEADERSHIP

"To an extent, leadership is like beauty: It's hard to define, but you know it when you see it." - Warren Bennis

Contemporary leadership theory supports the belief that everyone has the capacity to lead. Does that mean that anyone can be a leader? Most of us can point to some leadership experience in our lives, but not just anyone can be or become a leader. While effective leadership requires the knowledge necessary to understand the leadership role (a combination of skills and observable behaviors that can be learned), perhaps the most important quality one needs to be a leader is desire. Leaders have a desire to express themselves by taking on difficult problems, by leading others, and by going a step beyond.

In his book, On Becoming A Leader, Warren Bennis states that "leaders are people who are able to express themselves fully . . . they know who they are, what their strengths and weaknesses are, and how to fully deploy their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses. They also know what they want, why they want it, and how to communicate what they want to others in order to gain their cooperation and support. Finally, they know how to achieve their goals." Bennis goes on to identify the following basic ingredients of leadership, which are defining as well as instructive:

Guiding Vision: That guiding purpose. Having a clear idea of what you want to do personally and professionally. Having the strength to persist in the face of setbacks and even failures.
Passion: Leaders possess an underlying passion for life and often combine this with a very particular passion for a vocation, a profession, or a particular course of action. The leader loves what he does and loves doing it. The ability to communicate passion gives inspiration to other people. Passion is often described as enthusiasm.
Integrity: Includes self-knowledge, candor, and maturity. When you know what you consist of and what you want to make of it, then you can invent yourself. Candor involves honesty of thought and action and devotion to principle. A leader will not compromise principles, or even ideas, to please. Maturity is important because leaders need to have experienced and grown through following. If you are experienced in working with and learning from others, you are able to encourage these qualities in others.
Trust: Actually more of a product of leadership than an ingredient. This quality cannot be learned; it must be earned. Without trust from followers, the leader cannot function.
Curiosity and Daring: We have all heard that leaders "take risks," "try new things," and "wonder about everything." Leaders embrace errors as a way to learn more and do not worry about failure. Learning from adversity is a common theme in the study of leadership.
Leadership experts and scholars agree that it is important to distinguish between the skills and behaviors of a leader and those of a manager. In addition to the basic ingredients of leadership listed above, Bennis provides a look at "leaders, not managers" and points out the differences between education and training and how education produces leaders while training produces managers. The following list from his book On Becoming a Leader are interesting. They are certainly applicable to the physician assistant profession as we seek to gain leadership skills, create new opportunities for the profession in the marketplace, and highlight how our education has prepared us for unique leadership opportunities both within and outside organized medicine.

The manager administers; the leader innovates.
The manager is a copy; the leader is an original.
The manager maintains; the leader develops.
The manager focuses on systems and structure; the leader focuses on people.
The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.
The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective.
The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why.
The manager has his eye on the bottom line; the leader has his eye on the horizon.
The manager imitates; the leader originates.
The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it.
The manager is a classic good soldier; the leader is his own person.
The manager does things right; the leader does the right thing.

In an attempt to define leadership, we have highlighted a few of the many attributes a leader possesses. It is important to remember that virtually all of them can be learned. Roger Fulton, in his book Common Sense Leadership, says that if being a leader is your goal, you will:

Prepare by taking stock of which leadership skills and qualities you have, which you lack, and which you can cultivate.
Prepare by learning from the wisdom of successful leaders throughout history.
Prepare by becoming knowledgeable about your environment and organization from a practical and intellectual perspective.
Prepare by reading professional journals, belonging to professional organizations, and attending seminars and social functions.
Prepare by developing a broad-based background of knowledge and experience and interacting with other people - actively participate in sports, charity work, social organizations, and church activities.
Prepare by staying up to date on the latest trends in your own profession as well as trends in the nation and the world. This includes exposing yourself to current technology and keeping your finger on the pulse of the future.
Prepare by initiating and cultivating personal relationships internally within your community, workplace, and organization in order to share information and resources.
Prepare by learning to bring important outside information into your community, workplace, and organization. Leaders understand that meeting with leaders in related fields or with related interests are important in developing their vision.
Prepare by becoming a good public speaker. Most leaders have to learn this skill - take an adult education course.
Prepare by always doing your research before undertaking a leadership role or project. Leaders always use a variety of sources of information to obtain knowledge. As Samuel Johnson said, "the next best thing to knowing something is knowing where to find it."
Prepare by gaining respect. Fulton says: "If you can be liked and respected at the same time, you are a true leader. If you can only achieve one, be sure you are respected."
Prepare by winning loyalty and garnering support. Loyalty is earned by working with people and by helping others to be successful.
Prepare by developing a sense of humor. Nothing keeps things in perspective as well as humor. It can ease tensions and make a seemingly unmanageable impasse fade into the background.

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRAITS

Also useful in defining leadership is the examination of characteristics and traits that successful organizations require from people chosen to be future leaders. In his book Leadership Is an Art, Max DePree, the well-known CEO of Herman Miller and a respected scholar, outlines the following traits that should be present in all leaders. He says the future leader:

Has consistent and dependable integrity
Cherishes heterogeneity and diversity
Searches out competence
Is open to contrary opinion
Communicates easily at all levels
Understands the concept of equity and consistently advocates it
Leads through serving
Is vulnerable to the skills and talents of others
Is intimate with the organization and its work
Is able to see the broad picture (beyond his own area of focus)
Is a spokesperson and diplomat

To conclude this discussion of defining leadership, it seems fitting to share a definition crafted by Maryland Leadership Workshops, Inc. (MLW). MLW is known in leadership circles for its innovative ways of defining leadership. The official definition of leadership that MLW uses is as follows: Leadership is an umbrella concept that encompasses a wide variety of skills. The essence of leadership is the ability to persuade or motivate people to achieve a goal or outcome. The skills that make a leader effective, however, are not only beneficial in leadership settings, but have an immeasurable, tremendous impact on all aspects of one's life. The multiplicity of contexts in which leadership skills can be applied render leadership is, by far, the single most valuable concept to understand and develop in order to significantly enhance the quality of one's life.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES AND LEADERSHIP STYLES

"As we survey the path leadership theory has taken, we spot the wreckage of 'trait theory,' the 'great man' theory, and the 'situationist' critique, leadership styles, functional leadership, and, finally, leaderless leadership, to say nothing of bureaucratic leadership, charismatic leadership, group-centered leadership, reality-centered leadership, leadership by objective, and so on. The dialectic and reversals of emphases in this area very nearly rival the tortuous twists and turns of child-rearing practices, and one can paraphrase Gertrude Stein by saying, 'A leader is a follower is a leader.'" - Administrative Science Quarterly

The above quote eloquently outlines the myriad of thoughts that have comprised leadership theory and defined leadership styles in contemporary times. While some of these theories and styles may not seem applicable today, we continue to see evidence of their tenets in business and in organizations. Having a basic knowledge of selected leadership theories as well as some of the different leadership styles is important in understanding both the historical perspectives of leadership and current thought. In addition, this knowledge helps us to identify what leadership was and what leadership is as well as what leaders have done and what they do.

Selected Leadership Theories

Great man theory:

The 19th century notion based on leaders as "great men" who had a profound impact on society. The "heroes" were the leaders. Thomas Carlyle's 1841 work entitled On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History is an important work based in this theory. In particular, 19th century America was defined by men such as Thomas Edison, Lewis and Clark, Eli Whitney, and Walt Whitman, all who were great inventors, writers, and explorers. There was little role for women as leaders according to this theory.

Trait theory:

The trait theory examines personality characteristics of great people and attributes an individual's leadership capacity to a specific set of personality traits. Also important in this theory are physical characteristics such as strength. This theory in its original form also had an inherent male bias.

Situational theory:

The early form of this theory holds that, for leaders, the times produce the person. A more contemporary version of situational theory as outlined by Hersey-Blanchard suggests that leadership styles should be matched to the psychological maturity (self-confidence, ability, and readiness to accept responsibility) and the job maturity (relevant skills and technical knowledge) of the subordinates. A leader may delegate to a mature subordinate while telling an immature subordinate exactly what to do.

Contingency theory:

Fiedler's theory is a merging of trait theory and situational theory. In this theory, the appropriate style of leadership is contingent on the requirements of the situation and suggests that it may be easier for leaders to change their situations to achieve effectiveness, rather than change their leadership styles. This theory focuses on determining which situations call for task-oriented leaders and which situations relationship-oriented leaders better serve.

Attribution theory:

This theory is a more contemporary version of trait theory. It does not place as much emphasis on physical attributes. In attribution theory, leadership is an attribution that people make about other individuals. Attribution theory is based on the belief that people tend to characterize leaders as having certain traits. For example, leaders are said to have outgoing personalities, excellent verbal skills, and tend to be aggressive, consistent, and possess determination.

Path-goal theory:

Evan and House suggest that the primary function of a leader is to make desired rewards available in the workplace. Fundamental to this theory is the belief that the performance and motivation of a group is affected by a leader who offers rewards for achievement, clarifies paths toward goals, and removes performance obstacles.

Selected Leadership Styles

The Autocrat:

The autocratic leader dominates subordinates and team members. They use a unilateral approach to achieve their objective. Autocratic leaders often encounter passive resistance from team members, thus the leader often finds himself applying continual pressure and direction to subordinates in order to get things done. In certain instances where urgent action is required, an autocratic style of leadership may be best. Most people have had experiences with autocratic leaders and therefore have little trouble adopting the style when in a leadership role.

The Laissez-faire Leader:

This leader exercises little or no control over his group. Team members and subordinates are left to sort out their roles and tackle the work without much direction. In general, this approach leaves people floundering and without direction and motivation. In general, this leadership style is only effective when leading a group of highly motivated and skilled people. In this case, a laissez-faire leader can empower his group to achieve their goals by handing over ownership.

The Democrat:

This democratic leader has the ability to maintain control of the group while consulting the team to make decisions. A good democratic leader encourages participation and effectively delegates tasks. They never lose sight of the fact that they bear primary responsibility of leadership. A bad democratic leader makes everything a matter for group discussion and decision. He is seen as unsure of himself and his subordinates and is not "leading" at all.

The Charismatic Leader:

Charismatic leaders are self-confident, visionary, have strong convictions, and often behave out of the ordinary. They have the appearance of being a change agent and are particularly effective in assuming leadership in floundering businesses or organizations. A charismatic leader is often skilled at matching their leadership style to the particular situation.

An article in the March-April 2000 issue of Harvard Business Review entitled "Leadership That Gets Results" by Daniel Goldman, highlights recent research by the consulting firm Hay/McBer that suggests success in leadership may be tied to the ability of leaders to use a collection of distinct leadership styles. In many respects, the leadership styles identified in this research mirror styles discussed previously. However, this research warrants specific inclusion in our look at leadership styles, because it identifies six distinctive styles that impact leadership effectiveness. In addition, the research suggests that truly effective leaders rely on not one, but most of the leadership styles, depending on the climate and situation. The research suggests that "leaders who have mastered four or more - especially the authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles - have the best climate and business performance." The six leadership styles highlighted in Goldman's article are as follows:

Coercive leaders who demand compliance
Authoritative leaders who mobilize people toward a vision
Affiliative leaders who create emotional bonds and harmony
Democratic leaders who build consensus through participation
Pace-setting leaders who expect excellence and self-direction
Coaching leaders who develop people for the future

DETERMINING YOUR STYLE

Excercise #1:

One way to find out more about your leadership style is to ask people who have seen you in a leadership role to describe how you act as a leader. It is instructive to evaluate how others perceive your present style. Start by asking the following questions as suggested in Chapter 9 of The Complete Idiot's Guide to Leadership by Andrew J. DuBrin:

In your opinion, do I put more emphasis on relationships and people or on the task at hand?
Am I a taskmaster?
Am I too laid back or easy-going?
Do I provide the quantity and type of direction you need?
How responsive am I to the needs of group members?
Does my leadership inspire you or anybody else?
How warm and supportive am I as a leader?
As a leader, do I come across as a hard-core bureaucrat?
As a leader, do I come across as a pussycat?

Exercise #2:

The Center for Creative Leadership developed a technique for assessing leadership styles that is known in the business world as 360-degree feedback. It involves a formal evaluation based on input of people who work for you and with you to discover your leadership style and your impact as a leader. The unique feature of this system is that it evaluates "gaps" between how you perceive yourself and how others perceive you. In 360-degree feedback, you evaluate yourself (self-rating) and have others rate you (group rating) on various dimensions, using a scale of 1 to 10. Then you compare the ratings and evaluate the gaps (self-rating minus group rating). A negative gap means you rate yourself higher on a particular dimension. A positive gap means the group rates you higher on a particular dimension. Most leadership experts recommend professional evaluation and feedback be utilized when using this system. Give this system a try by rating yourself and having a person or a group rate you on the following dimensions: